Sun and Late Evening Light

Not a cloud sailed on that particular Sunday evening. The climbers, John and Mary had reached the tops of the cliffs as the sun was setting. They looked over the town to one side and the water on the other. The whole scene appeared strikingly beautiful in the late evening light, for it was sunset. Their hearts began to fill with emotions as the vast open sky started to turn from a baby blue to an autumn red, the clouds changed from cotton white to a flaming yellow orange giving the clouds a fluorescent laser lined effect.Birds chirped melodiously while flying away to their homes in the pleasant breeze, they too enjoying the spectacular sight. The crystal clear water sparkled like diamonds. Everything was almost still and the effect of the light made the scene look like one in a painting. It was so perfect. The climbers gazed upon the picturous scene as the autumn sky turned darker. The sun seemed to be at peace, making the climbers feel good and warm.The sun slowly began to fade away , as if it were about to fall off the edge of the water. John and Mary suddenly began to feel alive as they sat on the hill to take in the epic event right before them, they felt alive, reborn and inspired. They slowly watched the autumn red sun disappear behind the murky blue sea and said to themselves, what a glorious sunset. One that would be etched in their memories for life.

The Disability and the Media

In the disability and the media by Charles A. Riley II who is a professor of journalism at Baruch College, part of the City University of New York. Who is the co-founder of We (Media) We (Media) is the first multimedia company devoted to people with disabilities. He is also the former editor-in-chief of WE (media) magazine, a national bimonthly magazine which he has written two dozen cover stories. Riley was the director of communications for the International Center for Corporate Accountability, a Baruch-based labor, and environmental monitoring NGO. Riley was also a member of the board of the Asian American Research Institute and advisor to the Asian American Higher Education Council. And he has won major awards for his coverage of disability from Easter Seals, the National Recovery Alliance United, Cerebral Palsy and other organizations and acted as an advisor on both small business and accessibility issues to corporations. These include IBM, AT&T and Microsoft, the White House and the office of the mayor in New York City. As stated on page 529, â€Å"All branches of the media considered here, from print to television, radio, and move (including advertisement) to multimedia and the Internet, are guilty of the same distillation of stories of their own, usually fiscal, ends.† The audience is addressed in a way. They are addressed by saying that, they are the ones that take people with disabilities and they also change how they are being and the benefits they receive than other people. This article also addresses the general public, which is the people who believe in the media and take what the media says as everything and final. Riley tried to get peoples attention across what the media has been doing and not telling the truth but lie. â€Å"This is patronizing, trivializing, and marginalizing ur-narrative of distance ability in the media today.† This is talking about how the media uses people with disabilities and transforms and changes the person or subject they are using, possibly making them out to be the complete and total opposite of who they truly are. He uses Aimee Mullins experience to talk about her fifteen minutes of fame for her running with amputated legs but did not talk about her being a Pentagon intern and appearing on the dean's list as an academic genius and diplomacy at Georgetown. Riley talks about how the achievement of Aimee's are always told over and over by authors and journalist who are well-meaning but sometimes never give out enough information to find out who she really is. He says that most articles talk about her success and glorify her achievements with her disability into something way bigger than it truly is. It states, â€Å"However, today's storytellers, including those in the disability media, are more likely to make people with disabilities into ‘heroes of assimilation.† He is talking about how the media takes a simple person with disabilities and makes them out to be a hero for overcoming and fighting the battle they face, but rarely tell much about the person outside of the disability. â€Å"Every time Aimee Mullins sees her name in the papers she braces herself for some predictable version of the same headline followed by the same old story.† (Page 529) Riley talks about how the media always introduce her on headlines that seem to address her the same way every single time and never really talks about who she is. People do not like it sometimes what the media do and intend to forget what it could do to them or even forget who they are. I believe his main idea is not to just listen to the media, but to learn more about the person outside of the media as much as you can, because sometimes, everything you see and hear is not the truth.

Eugene Debs Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Eugene Debs - Assignment Example The Audubon Park is built in a 5,023 square-foot piece of land and is the first in Los Angeles City to be fully powered by on-site solar systems. Moreover, the building uses less water than any other conventional structure of its size. This paper is going to explore the Audubon Center and green building by describing what I saw and learned. The paper will also highlight the importance of green buildings for sustainability, particularly in Los Angeles, by discussing what kinds of changes and alternatives could be implemented in my home or on my college campus. Audubon Center Recently, I visited Audubon Center at Debs Park and learnt a lot regarding environmental conservation. I discovered that in order to conserve the environment, one has to put in place various significant issues. For instance, on assessing the Audubon Center, I concluded that virtually every aspect of the building, from ground floor to the rooftop, was custom-made to conform to the stringent requirements. Where need be, recycled materials including melted down handguns and scrap metal were adversely used in the rebar to act as strengthening materials to the concrete blocks and floors. Organic materials were also significantly embraced. This is demonstrated in all aspects, from the carpeting of Mexican agave plant, to cabinets and desks made of wheat board and sunflower board. Audubon Center uses a fully solar-powered air conditioning system thus meeting various goals of broad-based environmental movement that not only encourages the use of clean energy technologies, but also brings presence of nature close to people who rarely leave urban centers to travel to nature. I discovered that the solar power that cost about $90,000 and is about 10 tons uses an 800-square foot array of Chinese Sunda vacuum tube solar harvesters, each having a copper heat pipe and an aluminum nitride absorber plate that harvests the solar radiation. I found out that the Sunda tubes work on a principle of heat-pipe, whic h asserts that water under low pressure in tubes is normally heated and is transformed to a vapor that eventually flows up to the condensation section of the tube. Ultimately, water is heated and flows to the manifold that connects all the tubes, thus transferring thermal energy from the collectors to the hot water storage tank through insulated pipes. There are several things that can be done in my home area to conserve energy. Firstly, in order to achieve the requirements for the platinum Rating, my community must ensure that it constructs a building that would meet the fundamental requirement of green building by earning a minimum of 52 sustainability points out of the possible 69. I would advice my community that points are awarded on basically everything from the selection of site to the building materials used to being innovative in interior design by having indoor finishing that are environmentally friendly. It is worth noting that the Audubon Center at Debs Park scooped 53 L EED points. A major fraction of the points came from its efficiency in water system as well as renewable energy sources. I would also insist on using the locally manufactured and harvested materials which may include wood, sheet metal, paving materials, landscape plantings and concrete, since these are stressed by the LEED program. On visiting the Audubon Center, I discovered

Failure of the League of Nations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Failure of the League of Nations - Essay Example The research illustrates that Great Britain, France, Italy, Japan, and later Germany and Russia – all great powers in their own right - joined the League of Nations and the United States, on the other hand, was the only major power not to join the League in spite of having been instrumental in creating it in the first place. This dichotomy i.e. the failure of the United States to join the League of Nations, in spite of being its staunchest advocate, could thus be ascribed to its inability to reconcile domestic political compulsions with its international obligations. Was this domestic compulsion a clash between the ‘realists’ and the ‘idealists’? This is the main theme that the research paper will seek to examine. The idealist view of international relations envisaged the creation of, â€Å"international institutions to replace the anarchical and war-prone balance-of-power system. The realist view,  on the other hand, viewed the state as the most i mportant player, subservient to no other (external) authority. The idealist view was endorsed by president Wilson who in his, â€Å"celebrated Fourteen Points speech, delivered before Congress in 1918, proposed the creation of the League of Nations†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . Although the League of Nations came into being in 1919, Congress refused to ratify the United States’ entry into the league. This challenge to President Wilson’s worldview was spearheaded by a group of Senators led by Senators Henry Cabot Lodge, William E. Borah, and Hiram Johnson. Part of the realist view was that the US should revert to its policy of ‘isolation’ that had been in vogue pre-World War I in keeping with the Monroe Doctrine. This was at odds with the League’s charter, which enjoined that, â€Å"the international community had not only the right but a duty to intervene in international conflicts†¦Ã¢â‚¬ .

The U.K Defence Industry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The U.K Defence Industry - Essay Example Defence exports of the nation are worth almost  £5 billion on an average every year (The Telegraph, 2014). In the recent years however the share of government spending upon defence equipments have fell from 10% to 5%. The nation has had 21% share in the defence export market on a global scale from the year 2005 to 2010 (The Telegraph, 2014).The presence of a well developed export market has facilitated the creation of 65,000 jobs in the nation (Brauer and Dunne, 2004). The defence industry of the U.K successfully contributes  £12 billion value addition to the nation’s economy (The Telegraph, 2014). The major challenges faced by the industry are to work in alliance with the government, to assist reformation of the procurement processes, to encourage authorities to spend more on research and reform and to further develop the export capabilities. The Ministry Of Defence of the U.K is seen to follow an open competition policy (Neuman, 2006). The figure below shows some of the largest firms of the U.K in the defence industry in terms of revenue. Companies such as Rolls-Royce, Smiths Group Plc and BAE Systems rely on exports for their growth. Many such U.K based defence companies are looking towards selling their products in the emerging markets of the world which provide a greater opportunity for earning profits than the developed nations. The current paper analyses the general business and completion of three important defence firms of the U.K, namely Rolls-Royce, Smiths Group Plc and BAE Systems (Global Security, 2014). Rolls-Royce is the 16th largest contractor of defence equipments in the world (Neuman, 2006). The company is one of the pioneers in providing defence goods and services and caters to fulfilling the defence equipments and parts needs of many nations of the world.

Internship Project Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Internship Project - Case Study Example These skills, when ignored, often result in serious management problems and above-board consequences. The internship will educate employees about their corporate responsibilities and market set-up, while providing them financial assistance. By doing so, Joongangilbo ITEA will prove to be a valuable resource to small businesses and employees within Korea, because it will act as a publishing consulting agency by providing accommodating solutions to many employees from small enterprises for free.The evaluations will serve to encourage those facilities already in compliance that they are carrying out in their business practices in a business and ideally educational environment, and will propose instant changes for those facilities that are not complying with the corporate and work ethic values. The study will serve as a model for accounting and secretarial facilities all over Korea, and will identify problem areas in business compliance. The Internship program in Joongangilbo ITEA is designed as a connection between the publishing industry, small businesses and its employees within Korea with the ultimate goal of improving corporate concepts of leadership, marketing, entrepreneurship and acquiescence. The program is supported by the Department of Labor as an effort to train employees from small businesses. To help facilitate i... The company's headquarters are situated in Seoul, the capital city, while five other campuses are in other major destinations. The workshops are generally organized in the head office; however special courses can be accommodated upon demand. Details of Work Accomplished/Project Results: I had an internship with a company called Joongangilbo ITEA. Joongangilbo is one of the most famous and biggest newspaper publishing companies in Korea and Joongangilbo ITEA is its subsidiary. The company functions as an educational organization as well and provides different types of educational programs to people who wish to gain knowledge of useful business concepts. Among lots of department, I was assigned to a department that arranges the educational workshops for employees from small and intermediate level companies. This, in turn, provides better prospect for their business sector. Actually, my department was supported by the Department of Labor, and aimed towards educating employees of small and medium enterprises on different themes of leadership, management marketing, advertising, entrepreneurship, etc. The Department of Labor pays for the education fee and compensation for every participating member of the internship project. As a result, the company achieves a positive end by having a large number of participants and well-estimated costs of education and training session. On the other hand, The Department of Labor limited the number of internship participants to 36 per class. For this reason, the Joongangilbo ITEA makes break-even with 30 participants in the whole project. Consequently, good marketing, financing, and accounting should be accomplished for the company to yield some profits. In order to assemble and train all the

Use of Quick Response Codes in Healthcare Research Paper

Use of Quick Response Codes in Healthcare - Research Paper Example The client can then carry it with him or her on the go. Some healthcare facilities have taken this technology to the healthy living segment. This has allowed their clients to access healthy food without having to shop around. Inova Health System entered into a partnership with farmer markets in the local area to encourage consumers of healthcare to shop for their produce locally (Waters, 2012). To aid the community’s â€Å"Buy Fresh Buy Local† initiative, Inova created a Quick Response code that, on scanning, retrieves the phone’s mapping program and gives directions to a local market instantly. Healthcare facilities can also use the QR codes to schedule appointments. Athens Regional Health Services recently made mammogram bookings become much easier (Waters, 2012). The facility launched a Quick Response code that has the capability of linking to a site where the client can easily and instantly book an appointment for a mammogram. As with most technological advan ces in the healthcare sector, the QR codes do have their drawbacks. While it is one of the most significant occurrences in today’s internet-savvy community in the healthcare sector, it does have some considerable drawbacks. The popularity of Quick Response has been growing rapidly around the globe with more cell phone users switching to smart phones from the conventional cell phone. This has seen an increase in iPhone and Blackberry use around the world. The first advantage of using Quick Response codes is that they can read practically everything that appears online (Waters, 2012). The camera on the iPhone has now become a link to the online world, including hospital facility websites using a QR... This essay stresses that in the case of the elderly members of the community seeking advice on the use of QR codes, there is no real value in using Quick Response codes that cannot be done using other conventional means. There is neither exclusive content that they could access using the codes nor special healthcare rate for using the service. Since the main aim for QR code use in healthcare is to point people to resources, using SMS messages and more marketing material for the elderly generation would be better. These Quick response codes also represent a hassle, especially for a generation that is not very tech-savvy. Even for those with passable tech-literacy, it is possible to download and install Quick Response readers to the smart phone and uninstall them almost immediately. This is because their use can be time consuming with variable outcomes. In most cases, especially during pilot programs for QR codes, the codes take the clients to the normal website rather the mobile-optim ized one. This paper makes a conclusion that Quick Response codes have numerous good reasons for use in the healthcare sector. However, the majority of facilities utilizing them have done so without applying enough thought on its strategy. For the right audience, in this case the tech-savvy generation, the medium is appropriate and timesaving with lower cost and availability of valuable content. However, for the elderly community, it is a hectic task and, in fact, threatens to make hospital visits more cumbersome for them.

HR management in Britain and in EU Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

HR management in Britain and in EU - Essay Example The diplomatic management of human resources comes into play during recruitment. It is also responsible for what is contained in employee contracts, and this includes the aspects of social policy, such as social security benefits, leave, responsibility for work injuries, etc. Managers are responsible too for knowing the talents of the members of their workforce, as this knowledge will lead to better deployment. This is to the advantage of production as well as to the advantage of the employees, who achieve a sense of worth and fulfilment in utilising their best skills. Human resource development is also an important part of human resource management, and while the managers in UK firms play a large role in this, in the newer EU countries (Czech Republic, Poland, and Slovakia) the government takes a much more active role. The European Union has set its own standards for the management of human capital, and these standards must be met by any European state that wishes to enter the union. It realises that "effective management policies lead to employee competence and commitment, congruence between the objectives of employees and management, and is more cost effective" (Price, 2004). Several concerns, however, have been aired. Problems have been foreseen in the area of maintaining quality human resource management across the widening expanse of the European Union. In addition to this, problems also exist where there are discrepancies between and among the HRM policies of different EU member states. Since the European Union allows to some extent for the employment of members across member states, then it is essential for there to exist some level of agreement among the states regarding HRM policies. As it stands, while some states such as the United Kingdom have very advanced policies and robust human re source departments, other states like Slovakia, Poland, and the Czech Republic demonstrate a less developed level of management of its human capital. In order to remove the disparity among EU member states and its candidates, it is necessary first to have a thorough knowledge of the state of affairs in each country and then to compare and contrast to better understand what needs to be done. These nations will be assessed in terms of their managerial structure, managerial policies regarding recruitment, and human resource training and development. The UK model of Human Resource Management The actual term "Human Resource Director/Manager" exists in a large proportion of corporations in the United Kingdom. The existence of such a position demonstrates a high level of commitment to the management of human capital. The HR director overarches other managers who specialise in different areas. In the United Kingdom's private sector, 42% of all firms employing 500-999 persons (smaller firms) have a position with that title. In the larger firms, employing more than 1000 persons, the percentage rises to 65 (Federation of European Employers, 2005). Though not all companies have a position with such a title, there is evidence to suggest that the role does exist. In addition to this, the specialist managers' titles include training director managers,

Home work Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Home work - Coursework Example The social system has also separated the two groups to give the insurgence of the Whites who are in high class places while the blacks exists in the middle and lower class part of the society. In addition, ethnic segregation has further increased instances of racism as the society is divided into places where blacks and whites can live. Q3. Ethnic diversity also has benefits. One known benefit is multiculturalism. When different ethnic groups manage to live in one area, they manage to share with each other their culture. Some groups are able to appreciate and adopt the other groups culture hence leading to exchange of cultural information, for instance, pertaining the likes of eating habits, clothing, music and others. Another benefit of ethnic diversity in various cities is that it helps in scaling down the issue of racism. Q.4 Los Angeles is populated with Hispanics, Blacks, whites and Asians. Whites majorly exist in high class areas of Los Angeles like Hollywood and century city, Sherman Oaks. In Monterey Park, there is a large concentration of Asians. Hispanics take a large population as they are spread throughout Los Angeles, but more so to the East side. On the East side too, there is a mixture of whites, blacks, Asians and Hispanics. The diversity exists due to social stratification. The minority groups like the Hispanics and Asians are more concentrated in middle and lower class zones. Whites are more concentrated in areas of the rich as they belong to the high class people in the society. Q8. In looking at the statistics found in the table above, it is evident that ethnicity plays a role. For example, whites are located in areas of high per capita earning compared to other ethnic groups. In addition, whites have fewer families with people living below the poverty line as compared to Blacks, Hispanics and Asians. Hence ethnicity majorly influenced the distribution of the

The Fake Democratic Impact of the Social Media Web Sites Research Paper

The Fake Democratic Impact of the Social Media Web Sites - Research Paper Example The contemporary society is controlled by numerous functions of the internet including Wikipedia, youtube and blogging in general and the social networking in particular. Nevertheless, just like any inventor projects personal ideology through the invention, social media websites have also played a biased role in the promotion of awareness. Social media websites have played a negative role through the spread anarchy across the world in the name of democracy by projecting the views of the controlling agencies. US has conventionally played a central role in the spread of social media websites as the forums of discussion for the spread of democracy both within US and in several other countries particularly in the Asia and the Middle East. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in its Article 19 allows every individual a right â€Å"to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers† (Posner cited in Philadelphia News). This has prima rily been achieved by use of the mobile technology and the social media websites. In a vast majority of cases, the exchange of opinions in the social media websites has flared up the notions of anarchy amongst the users. Twitter was frequently used by the democracy activists in Iran to schedule the strikes. Also, a multinational campaign was organized with the help of Facebook against the Colombian narco-terrorist group called FARC. Antigovernment activists in North Africa and the Middle East have received training from the US about using the computer technology for spreading the democracy. Activists get the application uploaded in their cell phones. If the application is captured, the contact book immediately gets removed by the software and the activists receive a warning signal. The evidence can be erased with a single push of the button using the â€Å"panic button† technology (GRTV). American officials say that they use the technology to safeguard the concerns of the pro -democracy agencies across the border. Hundreds of thousands of the democracy activists are receiving training from US to run antigovernment campaigns that have recently been noticed in several Middle Eastern countries including Egypt and Lebanon. Foreign interference doesn't have to be a military invasion and a bombing campaign or some kind of a special operation in that country. It can also be the training and funding and political support given to individuals who then promote those foreign interests. That's one of the newest strategies that the US government has successfully been executing in different countries around the world, that it doesn't consider subordinate to their agenda. And they do it subtly, so it's harder to detect and denounce it, which is often more effective. (Golinger cited in GRTV). Social media websites are also being increasingly used by fake identities just to strengthen the popularity of views of a particular community. One example of this is the online ma nagement program that has been launched by the US military to enable the false personas to enhance the communication flow on the social media websites. In this sense, the social media websites are being increasingly used for the warfare. â€Å"People are using social media for cyber warfare. That's what we are going to see -- governments or non-state actors are going to try to find ways to use the internet and social media to gain

Role of the International Court and Tribunals in Relation to Armed Conflict Essay Example for Free

Role of the International Court and Tribunals in Relation to Armed Conflict Essay Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The volatility and persistence of armed conflicts around the world has caused the convention amongst states which aims to lessen the harm that it brought forth.   The research then aimed to identify the international laws and conventions that were created in order to lessen the evils of armed conflicts.   In addition, the research aimed to identify the international court and tribunals that were created in response to the said conventions and laws.   A few number of cases were also presented in order to understand more the applications of international laws and consequently the workings of the international court. The research will be identifying how these laws and courts are able to protect the rights of soldiers, prisoners of wars and civilians. Background of the Study Factors Leading to Conflict   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The historian AJP Taylor has described that wars are very much volatile as there are no standard systems in order to predict how one will occur. [1]   Corollary with this, various psychologists have significantly related human nature in terms on the frequency of armed conflict.   EFM Durban and John Bowlby have argued that man is inherently violent.   Such a claim is in accordance with Hobbe’s claim that on the state of nature man is in the state of war; hence claiming that man basically has the thirst for power and dominance, while consequently actualizing such in a violent manner. Durban and Bowlby claimed that although such a violence that man experiences is repressed in a conventional society, the creation of an outlet in order to occasionally express such a violent nature is inevitable.   This argument could be significantly related on how certain individuals such as for instance Hitler has displaced his hatred against the Jews.  Ã‚   Such is in relation to the claim why certain individuals shift their grievances to certain ethnic groups, nations or ideologies.[2] The Geneva Conventions   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Geneva Conventions of 1949 contains four separate treatises which primarily focus on protecting soldiers from sufferings that may have been wounded, sick, shipwrecked or might be prisoners of wars (POWs).   In addition, the protection of civilians and their property are also taken into focus on the said conventions.[3]   Ã‚  The humanitarian focus of the Geneva Conventions was further expanded through the 1977 Additional Protocols.[4]   Ã‚  On the other hand, the details of the use of the weapons of war and the use of biological weapons are not included in the said convention as the use of the former were specified by the Hague Conventions of 1889 and 1907.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The First Geneva Conventions on August 12, 1949 necessitates that soldiers who are out of battle (i.e. hors de combat) should be protected.   The Article 12 claims that equal care should be given to all people regardless of sex, race, nationality, religion, political beliefs, etc.   Article 15 claims that the sick and the wounded must be protected from pillage and ill treatment.   The second Geneva Conventions on the other hand caters to those sick and wounded who are on the seas.   The 63 provisions focus on the armed forces who are â€Å"wounded, sick and shipwrecked, hospital ships and medical personnel, and civilians who accompany the armed forces.†[5]   Ã‚  The third Geneva Conventions contains 143 articles which clearly defines how prisoners of war (POWs) should be treated.   According to the American Red Cross, POWs should be â€Å"†¦treated humanely, adequately housed, and receive sufficient food, clothing, and medical care. Its provisions also establish guidelines on labor, discipline, recreation, and criminal trial†.[6]   Specific provisions of the third Geneva Conventions which tackled these provisions are   Arts. 70-72, 123, Arts. 13-14, 16, Arts. 25-27, 30, Art. 23, Art. 17, Arts. 50, 54, Arts. 82, 84, Arts. 109, 110, Art. 118,   and Art. 125.   The fourth Geneva Conventions then focuses on the protection of the civilians in times of armed conflict.   The 159 articles of the said conventions emphasizes the need to have civilian lives’ maintained in a normal disposition and protect them on every means of evil.   [7]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As a sum, the Geneva Conventions based its arguments on the basic rational that human dignity of all individuals must be of utmost importance regardless of any instance.   Necessary ways must be done in order to prevent any kind of suffering of both the combatants who have suffered wounds or any type of sickness.   In addition, the rights of the rights of the POWs are also taken into utmost detail, hence preventing any kind of torture and other types of human rights violations.   In addition the protection of the civilians most specially the assurance of the living a normal and quality life that is free from danger and any type of evils are also emphasized.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The 1949 Geneva Conventions paved the way for the creation of a more detailed law that focuses more on the workings of armed conflict.   The Law of Armed Conflict (LOAC) is a response to the demand of a more thorough legal perspective in terms of conducting armed conflicts. Law of Armed Conflict (LOAC)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Law of Armed Conflict (LOAC) stemmed out from customary practices of international law which required nations to comply with the set of laws that preside over the exercise of military operations in armed conflict.   The acceptance of the international jurisdiction of the LOAC could be seen in the US Constitution which dubbed treaty obligations as the â€Å"supreme law of the land†, hence a part of the US law.   Hence it could be implied that all individuals that are under the US law most particularly those militants who are engaged in armed conflicts are bounded by LOAC.[8] The DoDD 5100.77, DoD Law of War Program emphasizes the necessity amongst all military departments to create a program that ensures that LOAC will be observed.   In addition with this, part of the treaty obligation of the US under the 1949 Geneva Conventions is the training of all military forces under LOAC and ensure that all weapons that will be used in armed conflict will be reviewed.[9] The nature of combatants are clearly defined in the LOAC.   Lawful combatants are those individuals who are certified by any government authority to participate in armed conflict.   In addition, a lawful combatant must be under the jurisdiction by an individual whose duty is to be responsible to his subordinates.   Corollary with this, a permanent and unique emblem should be identified even in a distant such as uniforms.   More importantly, a lawful combatant should be able to carry his arms obviously[10].   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   On the other hand, noncombatants are those people who are not certified by any government authority to engage in armed conflict.   These individuals are clearly defined as civilians who are with the Armed Forces, soldiers who are out of combat i.e. POWs, wounded, medical personnel and chaplains.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In relation with this, unlawful combatants are those people who participate in armed conflict whom however are not authorized by any government authority to be such.   For instance, bandits who steal from civilians are seen as unlawful combatants and may be viewed as targets that could be captured or killed. Also, unlawful combatants could also be put into trial because of violating international laws.[11]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Individuals who have undetermined status are those people which could not be categorized as a lawful combatant, noncombatant or an unlawful combatant. Undetermined individuals however are still viewed as under the protections of the Geneva Prisoner of War conventions until their status will be identified[12].   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Military targets are also clearly defined in the LOAC.   Such is relevant in order to limit the attacks to appropriate individuals.   Military targets are defined are those individuals whose virtue of their own nature, location, purpose adds to an enemy’s capacity to engage in war.   More importantly, the arrest and/or annihilation of these military targets are perceived to actualize the military objectives of the government.[13]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Regardless of the perceived goal of annihilation or capture of military targets, LOAC still takes into utmost focus the disposition of the civilian population.   Attacks on places which are not justified by military necessity are against the LOAC.   In addition, the attack on civilians in order to terrorize them is also against the international laws.   However, LOAC considers that the civilian deaths or other related casualties could not be totally prevented in armed conflicts. Hence, the LOAC emphasizes that as much as possible, military objectives would seek to minimize such harms.   LOAC emphasizes that losses on the part of the civilians must be in equal measure to the goals of the military.   In relation with this, LOAC also has a provision against attacking objects that are dedicated to peaceful purposes.   Medical units, vehicles for the wounded and the sick, hospital ships both for the civilian and the soldiers, safety zones as established by the Geneva Conventions, religious, cultural and charitable infrastructures, monuments and POW camps.   Albeit, LOAC also made clear that if by any chance that these objects will be used for war purposes, such will not be subject to any immunity[14]. Problem Statement   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Based on the laws set forth by the Geneva Conventions and the Laws of Armed Conflict (LOAC), the research seeks to identify what are the international tribunals and courts that are created in order to resolve the conflicts which stemmed during and/or after a particular war.   In addition, the research seeks to know what are the roles that these tribunals and courts played in relation to resolving conflicts and various types of injustices.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   International Court and Tribunals are created either to solve general conflicts and criminal cases or specific criminal cases of a particular country. These courts and tribunals are operational based on the laws, conventions and scope agreed upon and must be able to dispense justice in all possible cases.   However, issues emerge as how international courts and tribunals handle, resolve conflicts and spend their budget. Objectives of the Study   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The research aimed to: Identify the laws that were created that led to the proper and just exercise of international armed conflict. Identify various international court and tribunals that resulted due to the enactment of these laws. Identify the roles of the said tribunals and court in the exercise of justice. Identify the issues that these tribunals and court currently face. Significance of the Study   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The research is relevant in order to increase the awareness of the researcher and his colleagues on the workings of international laws in terms of resolving armed conflicts.   In addition, the identification of the international court and tribunals which stemmed out from these laws are also relevant not only for academic awareness and knowledge but also for a wider perspective of how armed conflict has affected various countries all over the world.   Such will enable the researcher to know the quality of life of these people that could further aid him in participating in his own small way of minimizing the advent of various political leaders for war. Review of Related Literature   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The research will be identifying the courts and tribunals which were created in order to resolve various conflicts and injustices that resulted because of armed conflicts.   For the purpose of this paper, the research will be discussing the First Generation Tribunals i.e. Nuremberg Tribunal and the Tokyo Tribunal; the Second Generation Tribunals i.e. International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), and the International Criminal Court (ICC).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  The role of these courts in relation to armed conflict will be identified, discussed through its principles and cases being resolved.   In addition, the issues that envelope these international courts and tribunals will also be identified. First Generation Tribunals International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg (Nuremberg Tribunal)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Nuremberg Tribunal was responsible for the trial and prosecution of the political, military and economic leaders of Nazi Germany.   The said trial was made at the Nuremberg Palace of Justice on the city of Nuremberg Germany from 1945 to 1949.   Two sets of trials were made.   The first was the â€Å"Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal (IMT) which was held from November 20, 1945 to October 1, 1946 which comprises of the 24 most relevant leaders of the Nazis.   On the other hand, the Control Council Law No. 10 at the US Military Tribunals (NMT) on the other hand was for the lesser war criminals which included doctors and judges[15].   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The first principle of the Nuremberg Tribunal claims that an individual who commits a crime that is punishable under international laws should be apprehended and punished[16].   Consequently, the second principle states that if by any chance that the law does not provide a specific type of penalty for a particular crime, does not automatically relieve the accused of the said crime that he committed[17].   The third principle on the other hand, emphasizes that being a government leader such as a head of state etc does not automatically relieve an accused of his accountability to the alleged crime[18].   In relation with this, the notion of the existence of a moral choice was cited on Principle four and as per the Tribunal should be the guiding virtue to acts that were claimed to be done due to duress from a superior[19]. More importantly, the fifth principle made it clear that the accused must be subjected to a fair trial based on the laws and evidences that will be gathered[20].   The sixth principle then defines the set of crimes that are punishable under international law, these are:   crimes against peace, war crimes and crimes against humanity.   Crimes against peace were defined as the â€Å"planning, preparation, initiation or waging of a war of aggression or a war in violation of international treaties, agreements or assurances† and the â€Å"participation in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of any of the acts mentioned under†. [21] On the other hand, war crimes are seen as the â€Å"murder, ill-treatment or deportation to slave-labor or for any other purpose of civilian population of or in occupied territory, murder or ill treatment of prisoners of war, of persons on the seas, killing of hostages, plunder of public or private property, wanton destruction of cities, towns, or villages, or devastation not justified by military necessity†[22].   Finally, crimes against humanity are characterized as â€Å"Murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation and other inhuman acts done against any civilian population, or persecutions on political, racial or religious grounds, when such acts are done or such persecutions are carried on in execution of or in connection with any crime against peace or any war crime†[23].   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The principles of the Nuremberg Tribunal which are affirmed by the General Assembly are the first set of principles that were formulated in order to lessen the evils brought forth by armed conflict.   The tribunal recognizes that equality of all men on the eyes of the law, as evident on the first and the third principles.   In addition, the notion of impartiality and fairness are also made clear as one of the guiding principles of the tribunal in order to trial those who were accused. However, one of the criticisms against the Nuremberg Tribunal is with regard to the notion that its principles are made ex post facto or â€Å"after the fact†.   Such means that the principles are made just after the Axis powers surrendered and the principles are not really adapted to any existing custom law.[24]  Ã‚   Critics of the Nuremberg Tribunal argue that what happens is more of a â€Å"Victor’s Justice† rather than a more impartial, neutral and just trial[25].  Ã‚   In relation with this, other criticism such as the accused were not allowed to appeal against the court or may also influence the selection of the judges[26].   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Below is a table summarizing the decision of the tribunal on the major personalities of the Nazi Regime.[27] International Military Tribunal for the Far East   (IMTFE) (Tokyo Tribunal)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The International Military Tribunal for the Far East, also dubbed as the Tokyo Tribunal was created in response to the crimes committed by the leaders of the Japan Empire during the Second World War.   The jurisdiction among people[28] is limited to the criminals of the Far Eastern who as members of an organization or as an individual have committed a crime that is against peace. The tribunal trialed the three types of crimes committed by Japanese leaders which are â€Å"Class A or crimes against peace, Class B or war crimes and Class C or crimes against humanity[29].  Ã‚   The first class of criminals is those Japanese who have waged a conspiracy in order to start the war and the other two types of criminals refer to those of the Nanking Massacre.   The trials started on May 3, 1946 and were finished on November 12, 1948. The Nanking Massacre involves the thousand of deaths that resulted from the abuse of the Japanese forces.   Civilians were buried alive while some become the targets of bayonet practice.   In addition, some were shot in huge groups and were thrown into the Yangtze River.   In addition with this, numerous women were raped, murdered and mutilated[30]. Japan has also conducted opium trafficking in China in order to weaken the latter from resisting[31]. The tribunal on Article 6 have made clear the responsibility of the accused, wherein it emphasizes that the accused official position or   responsibility towards the government are not sufficient reasons in order to acquit him, unless proven so[32].   The Article 9 which states how the trial of the accused is to be conducted is somewhat similar to that of the Nuremberg Tribunal.   Although Article 9 is leaning towards a fair trial for the accused, the provisions are only focusing on Indictment, Language, Counsel for Accused, Evidence for Defense, and Production of Evidence for the Defense.   One could see that there are no such provisions saying that the accused is capable for an appeal or could have an influence for the selection of the judges[33].   Similarly, Article 16 describes the mode of penalty and punishment includes death or other penalties that are perceived by the tribunal to be just[34]. Second Generation Tribunals The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia or the ICTY was made on May 25 1993 by the Security Council Resolution 827 in order to trial the crimes that were made on the former Yugoslavia, more particularly on the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina in order to protect international peace and security.   ICTY is located at Hague Netherlands. [35]    The ICTY has already indicted 161 individuals who are responsible for the crimes against international and humanitarian law.[36]   The conflicts that emerge on the former Yugoslavia shifted from Slovenia to Croatia and then to Bosnia which the later showed signs of genocide such as deportation and mass executions and concentration camps.   In addition with this, sexual assaults and rape were also documented.   In effect of this, on October 1992, the Security Council asked UN Secretary, Butros Butros Ghali to furnish an account of the violation of international humanitarian law in the former Yugoslavia[37]. The ICTY has four major objectives: first is to bring to justice the individuals who are accountable on the grave violations of international and humanitarian law, to dispense justice to those who are afflicted, to prevent such crimes to occur again, to do its part to restore peace and held responsible those individuals who committed such crimes of international law and humanitarian law[38]. The jurisdiction of the ICTY is limited only to individuals and not organizations and or groups, who were alleged to commit such crimes after the first of January, 1991.[39]   The violations that are subject to ICTY’s jurisdiction are those violations coming from the Geneva conventions such as: â€Å"a) wilful killing; b) torture or inhuman treatment, including biological experiments; c) wilfully causing great suffering or serious injury to body or health; d) extensive destruction and appropriation of property, not justified by military necessity and carried out unlawfully and wantonly; e) compelling a prisoner of war or a civilian to serve in the forces of a hostile power; f) wilfully depriving a prisoner of war or a civilian of the rights of fair and regular trial; g) unlawful deportation or transfer or unlawful confinement of a civilian; h) taking civilians as hostages† [40] Also, Violations on the Laws or Customs of War are also included such as:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   â€Å"a) use of poisonous weapons or other weapons calculated to cause unnecessary suffering; b) wanton destruction of cities, towns or villages, or devastation not justified by military necessity; c) attack, or bombardment, by whatever means, of undefended towns, villages, dwellings, or buildings; d) seizure of, destruction or wilful damage done to institutions dedicated to religion, charity and education, the arts and sciences, historic monuments and works of art and science; e) plunder of public or private property.† [41]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Crimes against humanity which are normally done to the civilians of former Yugoslavia are also trialed. In addition with this, Genocide was also another crime that ICTY looked into.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚      The ICTY has also categorized into two types the criminal responsibilities of that were allegedly committed by every accused.   The first type are those individuals who have a well structured plan and authority to exercise such crimes, while on the other hand, the second type of accused are those superiors who have their subordinates commit crimes which the former has no knowledge of; and / or the superiors who did not made any steps in order to punish the said subordinate who made such a crime.[42]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The ICTY also has Rules of Procedure and Evidence that were drafted and amended by its judges and provides the parameters of how proceedings in trials should undergo.   The basic premise of these standards resides on the notion of fairness which establishes the innocence of the accused and the burden of proof should rest on the prosecution.   More importantly, ICTY has made sure that all of the parties involved must have the capacity to present their cases and in such instances, the tribunal requires that the language of the accused will be used.   The tribunal has also made clear that death penalty can not be imposed and that the parties both have the right to appeal.[43]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Corollary with this, the rules of the tribunal also provides the right for a public hearing.   In addition, the right of the accused to analyze the evidences of the prosecution, present his own evidences and the right against self-incrimination is also an evidence of a fair treatment to the accused.   Unlike the Nuremberg and the Tokyo tribunal, the ICTY provides a more balanced perspective in terms of dealing with armed conflict accused and criminals.   In addition, the utmost relevance that is centered on the importance of the human life is also evident as death penalty is not an accepted form of punishment to those trialed as guilty of the said allegations[44]. International Criminal Court for Rwanda (ICTR)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The International Criminal Court for Rwanda (ICTR) was made on November 8, 1994 which is roughly 18 months after the ICTY was made.   The Security Council adopted the resolution 955[45] in order to trial the human rights abuses that resulted the conflict of two major tribes in Rwanda that resulted to genocide[46] between January 1, 1994 and December 31, 1994.   In addition with this, the neighboring states of Rwanda who have participated as well for the said genocide and other human rights violation were also subjected to the trials of the tribunal[47].   Ã‚  ICTR is located in Arusha, United Republic of Tanzania[48].   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The domestic conflict that emerge between the Hutu tribe which is the dominating tribe in Rwanda and the Tutsi Tribe which was the minority after the country’s decolonization   in 1962.  Ã‚   The Hutus and the Tutsi’s conflict emerge primarily out of political reasons and not really of ethnic differences.   Both of the tribes shared the same Roman Catholic faith and in times intermarried.[49]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In 1960, the Belgian government organized an election in response to the Tutsi’s demand for independence.   However, a huge amount of the mayoral posts were given to the Hutus and in two years span, the Hutus have supplanted the Tutsis as the local elites.   At such a span of time, there has been a wide documentation of reports claiming massacres of Tutsis which further led the latter to move to near by countries.   After 15 years, the killings have abated and the Tutsi refugees who have returned organized a parliamentary forced known as Rwandan Patriotic Font (RPF) which later on signed peace conventions to Arusha Peace Accords which mandated the share of powers between the Hutus and the Tutsis[50].   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The rare of how the Rwandan genocide have occurred was perceived to be so fast as around 1994 around 500,000 – 1,000,000 Tutsis has been killed while 10,000 to 100,000 Hutus were killed[51]. The laws adopted by the ICTR are governed by its statute which was based from the Security Council Resolution 955, wherein the Article 14 of the Statute serves as the foundation of the judicial framework of the tribunal.  Ã‚   The ICTR is primarily made of three organs which are the Chambers and the Appeals Chamber, the Office of the Prosecutor and the Registry[52].   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The jurisdiction of the ICTR is under the parameters of â€Å"genocide, crimes against humanity† and â€Å"violations of Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions and of Additional Protocol II†.   In relation with this, the crimes which are to be trialed are those executed between 1 January and 31 December 1994.   Those crimes to be included are those within Rwanda and in the territory of neighboring states which are significantly related to the alleged crimes[53].   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   However certain objections were made with regards to the laws set forth by the ICTR[54].   The first objection was against the decision regarding the jurisdiction on crimes limited to July 1994 rather than December 1994.   Critics claimed that such is because of the tribunal’s preference to cover earlier crimes and suspend temporal jurisdiction to retribution crimes against Hutus that were made on December.   The second objection was about the penalty that was accepted in Resolution 955 which was the highest form appears to be life imprisonment.   Such a statute was objected due to the argument that the Rwandan Penal Code allows the execution of death penalty.   The stand on the preference of the possibility of death penalty to be given against the leaders of the mass killings is so much important to the victims.   The third objection was with regard to the limitation of the crimes to be trialed as those of concerning genocide alone.   In effect of this, the killings that the Tutsi’s made after July would not be categorized as under the ICTR jurisdiction.   The fourth problem is with regard to the objection of the location of ICTR in Arusha stating that the â€Å"deterrent effect of the trial and the punishment will be lost if the trial and punishment will be lost if the trials were to be held hundreds of miles away from the scene of the crime†. [55] International Criminal Court (ICC)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The International Criminal Court was created on 2002 and is a permanent tribunal to trial cases and â€Å"crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes and crimes of aggression† as per Article 5 of its Statue.[56]   Ã‚  There have been a couple of appeals stating that crimes such as terrorism and drug trafficking must be included on the list of crimes that the court deals into. India has made a proposal to include the creation of the weapons of mass destruction, and nuclear weapons but such appeals to the court are defeated[57].   According to Article 11, the court only has jurisdiction after July 1, 2002 which was when the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court took effect.   The ICC is the â€Å"court of last resort† and will only trial cases of national origin when proved to be based on a faulty reasoning.   ICC has jurisdiction over matters wherein the accused belongs to a territory or state party that is under the national or territory of a state party.   After which Article 14 states that such a case will be referred by the United Nations to the ICC.   Since the court is made to function in juxtaposition of various national courts, ICC can only make take over the on the trial of certain crimes that national courts are unwilling to look into     The Article 17 of the Statute claims that â€Å"(a) The case is being investigated or prosecuted by a State which has jurisdiction over it, unless the State is unwilling or unable genuinely to carry out the investigation or prosecution;   Ã‚  Ã‚   (b) The case has been investigated by a State which has jurisdiction over it and the State has decided not to prosecute the person concerned, unless the decision resulted from the unwillingness or inability of the State genuinely to prosecute; (c) The person concerned has already been tried for conduct which is the subject of the complaint (d)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The case is not of sufficient gravity to justify further action by the Court†[58]. Similar to the tribunals presented above, the ICC also does not excuse criminals who hold certain positions on the government office. As defined in Article 27 these individuals include â€Å"Head of State or Government, a member of a Government or parliament, an elected representative or a government†[59]   In relation with this, Article 28 of the Statute claims that the superiors of those criminals are held responsible for the crimes committed by the latter.    The military commander are held liable in grounds of having or not having the foreknowledge of the criminal acts to be conducted and the failure of the commander to prevent or to report to other individuals of high position the perceived criminal acts to be executed.   In relation with this, the military commander will be held responsible for the criminal acts of his subordinates, given the notion that the former did not properly exercise his control by disregarding the foreknowledge that he got, and also failure to exercise his power and control in order to prevent such acts.[60] The ICC as of April 2007 have a total of 41 countries signed the Roman Statute but a number of countries are still opposing on it.   According to the Article 3 of the Statute, the official seat of the court is in Hague Netherlands; however, it may hold proceedings at almost any place[61]. The Effectiveness of International Courts and Tribunals   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Barria and Roper provided an analysis on the effectiveness of the second generation international tribunals and also touching certain aspects of the effectiveness of international courts such as the ICC[62].   According to them, the assessment of the effectiveness of the ICTY and the ICTR are difficult to assess because they were established based on various rationales due to the argument that the Security Council perceived the said tribunals with a â€Å"multi-faceted mandate†[63]. Although it could be asserted that the basis for the creation of the ICTY and the ICTR are based on a specific statute such as the Resolution 955, it could be perceived that they have the two tribunals serve two different ends.   The ICTR is perceived to maintain peace and order, make sure that violations against human rights and various killings will be stopped, and eventually leading on the process of national reconciliation[64].   As such, Barria and Roper argued that ICTR’s two main goals are closely similar to the ICTY, other than that the ICTR included on its mandate the task of reconciliation among the two opposing national forces.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   On a closer analysis, the establishment of the ICTY and the ICTR does not necessarily provided an immediate deterrent effect on the nations and parties that are involved, however, such hopes on the deterrent nature of the court are still expected on the far future.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In addition, Barria and Roper criticized that international tribunals are not generally perceived as an avenue to maintain peace and order, however, newly established courts such as the ICC are perceived to have the capability of securing peace in the international community. Roberts, as cited in Barria and Roper have maintained that the ICTY and the ICTR are not really that successful in terms of maintaining peace and security[65].   More importantly, Shinoda as cited in Barria and Roper criticized the relationship of imposing justice on the notion of national peace and order.   As such, Shinoda argued: â€Å"Does justice really contribute to peace? Should we reject unjust peace even in post-conflict regions?†[66]   As such, Barria and Roper argued that ICTY was not able to establish peace and order on the former Yugoslavia as hostilities between Bosnian Serbs, Croats and Muslims still exist[67].   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   On the case of the ICTR, revenge killings on the part of the Tutsi tribes are still in effect, as there is no cooperation on the part of national forces within the state of Rwanda.   As such, Barria and Roper argued that the success of the imposing of peace and order through the second generation tribunals will be only fully actualized if it gained support from the nations involved and the international society[68].   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another significant criticism that was raised regarding the role of international tribunals was that of Cobban wherein she asserts that international tribunals besides the argument that they failed to dispense justice have due process that are long and expensive.   On the 25 indictments that the ICTR have done, more than $1 billion was the documented cost which makes every case cost around $40 million[69].    Conclusion International Court and Tribunals are created either to solve general conflicts and criminal cases or specific criminal cases of a particular country. These courts and tribunals are operational based on the laws, conventions and scope agreed upon and must be able to dispense justice in all possible cases.   However, issues emerge as how international courts and tribunals handle, resolve conflicts and spend their budget. The research has identifying the courts and tribunals which were created in order to resolve various conflicts and injustices that resulted because of armed conflicts.   The research has discussed the First Generation Tribunals i.e. Nuremberg Tribunal and the Tokyo Tribunal; the Second Generation Tribunals i.e. International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), and the International Criminal Court (ICC). The Nuremberg Tribunal was responsible for the trial and prosecution of the political, military and economic leaders of Nazi Germany.   The said trial was made at the Nuremberg Palace of Justice on the city of Nuremberg Germany from 1945 to 1949.   Two sets of trials were made.   The first was the â€Å"Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal (IMT) which was held from November 20, 1945 to October 1, 1946 which comprises of the 24 most relevant leaders of the Nazis.   On the other hand, the Control Council Law No. 10 at the US Military Tribunals (NMT) on the other hand was for the lesser war criminals which included doctors and judges The International Military Tribunal for the Far East, also dubbed as the Tokyo Tribunal was created in response to the crimes committed by the leaders of the Japan Empire during the Second World War.   The jurisdiction among people   is limited to the criminals of the Far Eastern who as members of an organization or as an individual have committed a crime that is against peace. The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia or the ICTY was made on May 25 1993 by the Security Council Resolution 827 in order to trial the crimes that were made on the former Yugoslavia, more particularly on the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina in order to protect international peace and security.   ICTY is located at Hague Netherlands.  Ã‚  Ã‚   The ICTY has already indicted 161 individuals who are responsible for the crimes against international and humanitarian law The International Criminal Court for Rwanda (ICTR) was made on November 8, 1994 which is roughly 18 months after the ICTY was made.   The Security Council adopted the resolution 955   in order to trial the human rights abuses that resulted the conflict of two major tribes in Rwanda that resulted to genocide   between January 1, 1994 and December 31, 1994.   In addition with this, the neighboring states of Rwanda who have participated as well for the said genocide and other human rights violation were also subjected to the trials of the tribunal .  Ã‚   ICTR is located in Arusha, United Republic of Tanzania . The International Criminal Court was created on 2002 and is a permanent tribunal to trial cases and â€Å"crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes and crimes of aggression† Barria and Roper provided an analysis on the effectiveness of the second generation international tribunals and also touching certain aspects of the effectiveness of international courts such as the ICC.   According to them, the assessment of the effectiveness of the ICTY and the ICTR are difficult to assess because they were established based on various rationales due to the argument that the Security Council perceived the said tribunals with a â€Å"multi-faceted mandate. Another significant criticism that was raised regarding the role of international tribunals was that of Cobban wherein she asserts that international tribunals besides the argument that they failed to dispense justice have due process that are long and expensive. References American Red Cross â€Å"FACING FEAR/6-8/Lesson Plan 8/Facts About Terrorism and War† (2001). American Red Cross, â€Å"1949 Geneva Conventions† http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/7c4d08d9b287a4214125673 9003e636b/fe20 c3d903ce27e3c125641e004a9 2f3 accessed 19 April 2007.   Avalon Project at Yale School, â€Å"International Military Tribunal for the Far East, (Article 5)† http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/imtfem.htm accessed 20 April 2007. Barria L and Ropper S, â€Å"How Effective are International Criminal Tribunals? An Assessment of the ICTY and the ICTR, The International Journal of Human Rights September 2005, Vol. 9, No. 3, 349–368. Biddis M, â€Å"Victor’s Justice? The Nuremberg Tribunal†, History Today (1995). â€Å"Causes of War†, http://www.spiritus-temporis.com/war/causes-of-war.html accessed on 18 April 2007. Cobban H , â€Å"International Courts†, Foreign Policy (2006) 22-28. Dilip Lahiri, 17 July 1998. Explanation of vote on the adoption of the Statute of the International Criminal Court. Embassy of India, Washington, D.C. Global Policy, â€Å"Tribunal Laws Made Simple†, http://www.globalpolicy.org/intljustice/tribunals/yugo/2004/ictyintro.htm accessed 20 April 2007. International Criminal Court. â€Å"About the Court†, http://www.icc-cpi.int/about.html, accessed on 20 April 2007 Microsoft Encarta, â€Å"War Crimes Trial†, Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 2005 PICT-PCTI, â€Å"International Military Tribunal for the Former Yugoslvaia†, http://www.pict-pcti.org/courts/ICTY.html accessed 20 April 2007. Powers Rod, â€Å"Law of Armed Conflict (LOAC)† (Guide to US Military) http://usmilitary.about.com/cs/wars/a/loac.htm accessed 19 April 2007. Puja K, â€Å"Global Civil Society Remakes History:â€Å"The Women’s International War Crimes Tribunal 2000†, Duke University, positions 9:3 Winter 2001, 611-618. â€Å"The Tokyo War Crimes Trial†, http://www.cnd.org/mirror/nanjing/NMTT.htmlaccessed 20 April 2007. United Nations, â€Å"General Information†, http://www.un.org/icty/glance-e/index.htm accessed 20 April 2007. United Nations. â€Å"Key Figures of ICTY Cases†, http://www.un.org/icty/glance- e/index.htm accessed 20 April 2007. United Nations, â€Å"General Information†, http://www.un.org/icty/glance-e/index.htm accessed 20 April 2007. United Nations, â€Å"International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda†, ictyhttp://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu2/2/rwatrib.htm accessed 20 April 2007. United Nations, â€Å"PART 2. JURISDICTION, ADMISSIBILITY AND APPLICABLE LAW† http://www.un.org/law/icc/statute/99_corr/2.htm accessed 20 April 2007. United Nations, PART 3. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CRIMINAL LAW, Article 27†, http://www.un.org/law/icc/statute/99_corr/2.htm accessed 20 April 2007. United Nations, â€Å"Part 1 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COURT, Article 3†, http://www.un.org/law/icc/statute/99_corr/4.htm accessed 20 April 2007. [1] â€Å"Causes of War†, http://www.spiritus-temporis.com/war/causes-of-war.html accessed on 18 April 2007. [2] Ibid. [3] American Red Cross, â€Å"1949 Geneva Conventions† http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/7c4d08d9b287a4214125673 9003e636b/fe20 c3d903ce27e3c125641e004a9 2f3 accessed 19 April 2007. [4] American Red Cross â€Å"FACING FEAR/6-8/Lesson Plan 8/Facts About Terrorism and War† (2001). [5] Ibid. [6] Ibid on page 3. [7] Ibid. [8] Powers Rod, â€Å"Law of Armed Conflict (LOAC)† (Guide to US Military) http://usmilitary.about.com/cs/wars/a/loac.htm accessed 19 April 2007. [9] Ibid. [10] Ibid. [11] Ibid. [12] Ibid. [13] Ibid. [14] Ibid. [15] Microsoft Encarta, â€Å"War Crimes Trial†, Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 2005. [16] Ibid. [17] Ibid. [18] Ibid. [19] Ibid. [20] Ibid. [21] Ibid. [22] Ibid. [23] Ibid. [24] Biddis M, â€Å"Victor’s Justice? The Nuremberg Tribunal†, History Today (1995). [25] Ibid. [26] Ibid. [27] Table taken from: Biddis M, â€Å"Victor’s Justice? The Nuremberg Tribunal†, History Today (1995). [28] Avalon Project at Yale School, â€Å"International Military Tribunal for the Far East, (Article 5)† http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/imtfem.htm accessed 20 April 2007. [29] Puja K, â€Å"Global Civil Society Remakes History:â€Å"The Women’s International War Crimes Tribunal 2000†, Duke University, positions 9:3 Winter 2001, 611-618. [30] â€Å"The Tokyo War Crimes Trial†, http://www.cnd.org/mirror/nanjing/NMTT.htmlaccessed 20 April 2007. [31] Ibid. [32] Avalon Project at Yale School, â€Å"International Military Tribunal for the Far East, (Article 6)† http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/imtfem.htm accessed 20 April 2007 [33] Ibid on Article 9. [34] Ibid on Article 16. [35] United Nations, â€Å"General Information†, http://www.un.org/icty/glance-e/index.htm accessed 20 April 2007. [36] United Nations. â€Å"Key Figures of ICTY Cases†, http://www.un.org/icty/glance-e/index.htm accessed 20 April 2007. [37] PICT-PCTI, â€Å"International Military Tribunal for the Former Yugoslvaia†, http://www.pict-pcti.org/courts/ICTY.html accessed 20 April 2007. [38] [38] United Nations, â€Å"General Information†, http://www.un.org/icty/glance-e/index.htm accessed 20 April 2007. [39] Global Policy, â€Å"Tribunal Laws Made Simple†, http://www.globalpolicy.org/intljustice/tribunals/yugo/2004/ictyintro.htm    accessed 20 April 2007. [40] Ibid. [41] Ibid. [42] Ibid. [43] Ibid [44] Ibid. [45] United Nations, â€Å"International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda†, ictyhttp://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu2/2/rwatrib.htm accessed 20 April 2007. [46] Barria L and Ropper S, â€Å"How Effective are International Criminal Tribunals? An Assessment of the ICTY and the ICTR, The International Journal of Human Rights September 2005, Vol. 9, No. 3, 349–368. [47] United Nations, â€Å"General Information†, http://69.94.11.53/default.htm accessed 20 April 2007. [48] Ibid. [49] Barria L and Ropper S, â€Å"How Effective are International Criminal Tribunals? An Assessment of the ICTY and the ICTR, The International Journal of Human Rights September 2005, Vol. 9, No. 3, 349–368 [50] Ibid. [51] Ibid.

Understanding Your Strengths And Weaknesses Essay Example for Free

Understanding Your Strengths And Weaknesses Essay In a study released, 87% of workers worldwide are emotionally disconnected from their workplaces and are less likely to be productive; making work a source of frustration rather than one of fulfillment. (Gallup, 1993) The statistics illustrate a lack of commitment to learning and understanding of one’s own strengths and weaknesses, amongst the population. People need to think about the person they are and where their strengths and weaknesses lie because if they don’t stop to consider what they’re good at and what they need to improve, they will find themselves in the 87% of the population who don’t enjoy what they do. Following this discovery, I completed a personality test on 16Personalities.com that stated my strengths and weaknesses following answering a series of questions, in hopes to have a better understanding to how my strengths and weaknesses play into the role as a paramedic. The personality test revealed that I am altruistic, a good team player, possess good communications, but also am too selfless and sensitive; these results will give me a better comprehension as to how and why a career as a paramedic is the right fit for me. My strengths of being able to work well in a team setting, having good communication skills and being altruistic will help me as a paramedic, while these are essential characteristics to becoming a great paramedic. The test revealed that I am tolerant and reliable, where it explains I excel in team environments where I am able to listen to others, even when their opinions contradict mines; and I am irritated by the idea of letting people down, so I can be counted on to see any task through. It is important for paramedics to be good team players and be trustworthy because paramedics are often placed situations where they have to work with other people (like the police and firefighters) where we have to trust each other and work well together in a situation whereby we are forced to rely to a great extent possibly for our own well-being, and everyone else on scene. The test also showed that I â€Å"instinctively know how to capture an audience, and pick up on mood and motivation in ways that allow them to communicate with reason, emotion, passion, restraint whatever the situation calls for†, further elaborating saying that I can shift my tone and manner to reflect the needs of the audience, while still maintaining my own voice. These great communication skills are a crucial part to the career as it will allow a more accurate  assessment of the situation through uncovering what happened, how many people were involved or whether there is any remaining danger. Being able to talk to people and keep both patients and family or others on the scene calm can make the situation easier to control, and maintaining conversation with a patient can help to retrieve important information that may be needed for their treatment. It was uncovered that I have an unyielding desire to do good for others and for my community, and that I genuinely believe that if I can just bring people together, I can do a world of good. Because of the nature of the career, where paramedics are responding to people who need help, it is essential individuals pursuing a career as paramedic have that natural desire to make a difference in the lives of others and in their community. The personality test revealed that I am too selfless and sensitive, explaining that I will bury myself in my hopeful promises and feeling others’ problems as my own. If I’m not careful, I could spread myself too thin, and be left unable to help anyone. Because of my sensitivity to others it means that sometimes I feel problems that aren’t my own and try to fix things I can’t fix and spending too much time worrying about whether if I am doing enough. My weaknesses might make things difficult as a paramedic because the reality of it is I will only be with the patient until they are in the hospital. It is not possible to be able to solve every problem, and if I carry that burden on my shoulders on the job, it will be very difficult for me to have good mental stability making me more susceptible to PTSD. One way I can improve my weakness is talk about my feelings as I am feeling with coworkers or the therapist. If I am diligent about keeping a realistic perception of the situation I am in, and understand there is so much one person can do, I am confident I can maneuver through each call with more ease. In conclusion, it is evident that my strengths as a natural team player, great communicator, and altruistic by nature would help make me a great paramedic. Paramedics work in stressful and pressured work environments, where lives are affected by the outcome of their actions. This can be made even more difficult by the long working hours. The role has a large amount  of responsibility, and these are important qualities for those who wish to do well in emergency care. A great paramedic would not be able to perform difficult and distressing work to the capacity that they need to without being able to work well with others on scene, be able to probe and extract information strategically, and have the natural desire to be there to make a difference in a time of crisis.

Examining The Usages Of E Payment Systems Information Technology Essay

Examining The Usages Of E Payment Systems Information Technology Essay In this literature review, we will describe several aspects of e-payment system. The literature review will start by the definitions followed by theories. Next, it would continue by some dimensions of e-payment system which include the types and usages of e-payment system, processes, usage trends, benefits and risks and management of e-payment system. Finally, the literature review will conclude by the conclusion. 2.0 Definition From online encyclopedia TriasWiki (2010), e-payment or Electronic payment is any digital financial payment transaction involving currency transfer between two or more parties. Velmurgan,R.J. and Senthil,M. (2008) defined that an electronic payment is a payment services that utilize information and communications technologies including integrated circuit (IC) card, cryptography, and telecommunications networks. From the Velmurgan,R.J. and Senthil,M. (2008), the electronic payment consists of users who can in turn be subdivided into retailers and consumers depending on the transaction model adopted, issuers which included banks and other financial institutions that are providing the actual mechanisms or the means to integrate the mechanism into other financial systems, and regulators who are concerned with issues ranging from assuring the integrity of the mechanism and its operators, to the potential impact on the wider economy. According to Nochex.com (2010), e-payment is defined as an electronic payment is a payment services that utilize information and communications technologies including integrated circuit (IC) card, cryptography, and telecommunications networks. Based on Hartmann,M.E. (2006), in principle, e-payments may be defined as all payments that are initiated, processed and received electronically. One can distinguish between e-commerce retail payments (business-to-consumer or B2C payments) and e-payments amongst consumers (Private-to-Private or P2P payments), as well as electronic adoptions of traditional banking services (electronic transactions between a bank and its customers. For example, e-payments included paying for an article with a click of your mouse; settling an auction purchase via your e-mail account; buying an electronic ticket using your mobile phone. Acoording to Odlyzko (2003), e-payment is a subset of an e-commerce transaction to include electronic payment for buying and selling goods or services offered through the Internet. Generally, electronic payments referred to online transactions on the internet. Nordea Bank Finland (2005) explained that e-payment is an electronic payment method in which a buyer selects purchases and pays them within a single Internet session. The payment can be transferred to the seller immediately or on a later date. 3.0 Theories According to Basir,A.A. (2009), the e-payment usage among the consumers and its usage trends show the acceptance level of the e-payment system. The increases in the non-cash retail transactions reflect the increases acceptance of e-payment system among consumers in Malaysia. Thus, from the Basir,A.A. (2009), it shows the relationship between the usage among consumers and acceptance level of the e-payment systems. The usage and the acceptance level of e-payment systems have a linear relationship, which means that when the usage of e-payments among consumers increase, the acceptance level of e-payment systems will also increase. In other words, the higher the usage of e-payment system among consumers, the higher the acceptance level of e-payment systems among consumers. 4.0 Contents Basir,A.A. (2009) stated that the payment systems in Malaysia have been undergoing changes in recent years. Among the notable changes is the emergence of electronic-based payment systems. Both value and volume of transactions per capita use of e-payment instruments had increased in recent years. Next, we will start the literature review from the types and usages of e-payment systems. 4.1 Types and usages of e-payment systems There have appeared different types of electronic payment system in the last few years. At least dozens of electronic payment systems proposed or already in practice are found (Murthy, 2002). Murthy (2002) explained six types of electronic payment systems: PC-Banking, credit cards, electronic cheques (i-cheques), micro payment, smart cards and E-Cash. Maurer,B (2007) identified 4 types of electronic payment systems: debit and credit card, interne-based payments, mobile payments, mobile wallet, e-purses and payment through a third party. Thus, electronic payment system can be broadly classified into 5 types: Online Credit Card Payment System Singh Sumanjeet (2009) stated that this type of electronic payment system has been widely accepted by people in the world, and it is the most popular method of e-payment especially in the retail markets. This type of system is widely accepted by public, because it offers convenience for both the customer and the seller. This form of payment system has several advantages, which were never available through the traditional payment systems. Some of the most essential elements are privacy, integrity, compatibility, good transaction efficiency, acceptability, convenience, mobility, low financial risk and anonymity (Singh Sumanjeet, 2009). The process of online credit card payment system is very simple. If consumers want to purchase a product or service, they can send their credit card details to the service provider involved then they will handle this payment like any other (Singh Sumanjeet, 2009). Electronic Cheque Payment System Nowadays, millions of businesses use electronic cheque payment system, which replace the traditional paper cheques with the other vendors, consumers and government (Singh Sumanjeet, 2009). It functions using the same mechanisms as paper cheque, but in an electronic format. E-cheque transactions take place in the ways that the consumer writes the eCheque and gives the eCheque to the seller electronically. Then the seller deposits the eCheque, receives credit, and the sellers bank clears the eCheque to the paying bank. Finally, the paying bank validates the eCheque and then charges the check writers account for the cheque. E-cheque payment system offers numerous advantages like safe bank transactions on the Internet, unlimited information carrying capacity, reduced fraud risk, and automatic verification of content and validity. But, this type of payment also has several disadvantages. These include their relatively high fixed costs, their limited use only in virtual world and the fact that they can protect the users anonymity (Singh Sumanjeet, 2009). Therefore, it is not appropriate system for the use by consumers, although its useful for the government and B2B operations because the latter transactions do not require anonymity, and the amount of transactions is generally large enough to cover fixed processing cost. Electronic Cash Payment System Electronic cash (e-cash) is a new concept in electronic payment system because it combines computerized convenience with security and privacy that improve on paper cash (Singh Sumanjeet, 2009). The primary function of e-cash is to facilitate transactions on the Internet. Many of these transactions may be small in size and would not be cost efficient through other payment mediums such as credit cards. While it appears superior to other forms, E-cash will not completely replace paper currency. Use of E-cash will require special hardware, and while most people will have access, but not all will. Singh Sumanjeet identified some advantages for this electronic payment system like authority, privacy, good acceptability, low transactions cost, convenience and good anonymity. However, e-cash also has many limitations like poor mobility, poor transaction efficiency and high financial risk, as people are solely responsible for the lost or stolen (2009). Smart Cards A smart card is similar to a magnetic stripe card but contains a microprocessor chip. The first smart cards that created were prepaid telephone cards. Owing to their considerable flexibility, they have moved on for a wide range of functions like highway toll payment, student cards, electronic purses and also our identity cards: MyKad. Smart cards are essentially credit card sized plastic cards with the memory chips in them so as to serve as storage devices for much greater information than credit cards (Singh Sumanjeet, 2009). With the emergence of e-commerce, smart cards had become a particularly appropriate method to execute online payment system and it has greater level of security than credit cards. Singh Sumanjeet also states that smart cards are better protected from misuse than credit cards because the smart card information is encrypted by enter a personal identification number (PIN) code (2009). The advantages of smart cards are almost same as electronic cash payment system, its included good anonymity, transfer payment between individual parties, and low transactional handling cost. Most of the developing countries rely more on smart cards based electronic payment system although credit card is the most popular in the world. Payment through a Third Party Third party payments are person to person transactions. This type of payment is very convenient as money can be transferred without disclose any personal or financial information. All transactions happen in real time so sellers can see payments reflected in their accounts at once. When a customer intends to pay through a third party, the third party will transfers money from the account of the buyer to the seller. All this is done for a certain fee. 4.2 Process Kannen,M., Leischner,M. and Stein,T. (2003) have examined the figure of process oriented phase model for electronic payment. There are 5 phases in this model which are initialization, deployment, negotiation, payment and post payment. Generally, the first 2 phases that initialization phase and deployment phase are only function once, whereas the rest of phases have to be repeated during each payment transaction. In initialization phase, customers and merchants involve in selection of payment methods, consider the contract agreement to obtain a credit card, and choosing payment scale for billing, or the settlement of a mail order agreement according to their requirements. This method makes the participants of the payment method in the legal sense. Before signing the contract, the participants have to consider the provisions of information for the various payment operations and as well as acquire individual consultation for the specialist. In order to make e-payment system operational, customers and merchants integrate the payment methods into their existing environment technically and organizationally in deployment phase. An e-payment system provider supply technical requirements, such as software or a smart card reader, assist the participants in the system configuration through a phone hotline or on site configuration, integrate various interfaces in the merchants present IT infrastructure with important payment data. During negotiation phase of an e-payment system, customers and merchants negotiate a precise payment transaction. They can negotiate the types of payment methods based on the payment amount, cash discount, payment date, part payment options such as deposit and outstanding payment after a faultless supply, the integration of bonus systems, and the possibility of splitting the amount between various payees. This negotiation phase is relying on trustfulness between both parties, which lead to the successful of the transaction. The actual payment takes part in the payment phase. It undertakes the settlement of the payment according to the agreements in the negotiating phase. First, the participants need to authorize and confirm the payment transaction. After that, the payment data will transfer to particular payment participants such as the credit card company. The last phase in the e-payment process is post payment phase that an assigned payment is processed and completed. The after payment services includes all services, which are necessary and preferable for the further settlement of payment transactions. As an e-payment provider, it needs to verify the clearing of the payment transaction, the recording of the payment transaction, which can be seen and tracked by the user, the currency reconciliation of the merchant, the clearing of the bookkeeping entry by the merchant, the documentation of all transactions and the cancellation of consisting payment transactions by the user. Singh Sumanjeet (2009) examined that digital currency based payment system. The intermediary in this figure plays the role as an electronic bank. It converts outside money (RM) into inside money (e cash), which is circulated within electronic markets. Intermediary acts as a centralized commerce enabler maintaining membership and payment information for both sellers and buyers. A buyer need only send the seller his identification number assigned by the intermediary. Trust and security are important in every stages of e-payment process. As an initial prerequisite, all participants should have absolute trust in the process. This fundamental attitude must be underlined during each payment process again and again. The trust is essential and important for the acceptance of electronic payment. The transaction security means that the secure and reliable payment in the handling of electronic media according to defined rules. Therefore, by implementing these two elements, the successful of e-payment process can be achieved. 4.3 Usage trends of e-payment systems Gerdes,G.R. (2008) conducted surveys to estimate the number and value of electronic payments originated in the United State in 2006 by means of commonly used payment instruments. He sent the questionnaires to 73 well-established electronic payment networks, card issuers, and card processors. 89 percent of established entities had responded with information and he found that the number and value of payments processed by the non-respondents were likely very small. Thus, most of the established entities were having large number and value of electronic payments. Since the usage of electronic payments is high, the acceptance level of electronic payments by the established entities is also considered as high. Besides, Gerdes,G.R. was also sent the questionnaires to 33 emerging payments companies and the surveys were returned by 16 companies. He got the results of the reported totals for emerging payments are lower bounds for the national totals. It means that the national in United States haven fully accept the emerging payments such as the online bill payment transactions since the usage trends of emerging payments among them still low. Basir,A.A. (2009) examined the e-payment usage trends in Malaysia. According to Basir,A.A. (2009), the e-payment system has seen increasing acceptance among consumers in Malaysia since the usage and the usage trends of e-payments increased. He found that he volume of non-cash retail transactions per capita increased from 13.8 to 32.5 and the e-payments share of the total non-cash retain payments increased from 3% to 7% (from 2003 to 2007). There are several reasons caused the use of e-payment instruments increasing such as cost saving, safety and the confidence conferred from security measures of e-payment instruments. Thus, these benefits encourage more people to use the e-payment instruments and also encourage the acceptance level of e-payments by consumers. Based on the Basir,A.A. (2009), the major e-payment instrument in use in Malaysia are credit cards, internet banking and others. First, Basir,A.A. found that the usage trend of credit cards is high. Both the value and volume of transactions per capita have increased from RM1159 and 5.8 to RM2 047 and 8.7, respectively (from 2003 to 2007). Credit card is the oldest e-payment instrument in Malaysia and the consumer demand for credit made it has the high usage level. Thus, the acceptance level of credit cards relatively higher than other e-payment instruments. From the research of Basir, A.A. (2009), the usage trend of internet banking growth rapidly. The value and volume of transactions per capita increased from RM403 and 0.3 to RM2,047 and 1.5 respectively (from 2003 to 2007). In addition, the use of internet banking among internet subscribers in Malaysia increased from 59% to 85% (from 2003 to 2007). Since there are increasing trend in use of internet banking, thus the acceptance level also increase among the consumers. Charge cards, e-money and debit cards are also included to the e-payment instruments. According to Basir,A.A. (2009), the value of transactions per capita for charge cards increased from RM74.9 to RM81.7 and RM22.4 to RM59.0 for e-money. The volume of transactions per capita for e-money increased from 7.6 to 22.3, but volume of transactions per capita for charge cards was flat. Furthermore, the value of transactions per capita for debit cards showed a significant increase from RM3.5 to RM42.9. However, the volume of transaction per capita remained static. Thus, the usage of these e-payment instruments showed increased, means that the usage trends are high. It showed that the acceptance level of consumers is also high. E-payments provided many benefits to consumers and it encourages them to use these e-payment instruments and caused the acceptance level increased. According to Wilson,U. (2009), electronic payments have grown rapidly in several forms. The usage of debit cards has exploded for 27 percent of total non-cash payments in 2006. He also found that credit cards and ACH transactions have also grown dramatically. Thus, it reflected the consumers acceptance level towards e-payments systems have increasing. In a nutshell, the usage trends of e-payments are increasing among the consumers due to various benefits provided by the e-payments instruments. It also showed the acceptance level of e-payment systems has followed increasing since the usage and its usage trends of e-payment are increasing. 4.4 Benefits of e-payment systems With the growth of the Internet, electronic payment has become a popular way for consumers to pay bills and manage their accounts in home. Consumers are eliminating the trouble that often comes with filing paperwork and mailing cheques, and these substitute by keeping their records online through secure networks. Electronic payments services not only increase efficiency of businesses, but also wider choices, save cost, reduce late payments, consolidating bank relationship and provide a greener business solution to customers. Businesses and customers can choose from a range of payment instruments and channels such as credit cards, debit card, e-cash and e-cheque. The increase in the variety of electronic payment methods afford the SMEs more choices from which to choose a channel or instrument that best suits that firms market size and the level of technological, capital and labor intensity (Basir,A.A. 2009). Electronic payments also allow businesses to send invoices electronically and accept payments through Internet. This is extremely helpful for businesses that send out invoices monthly and creating a more efficient billing cycle. Basir,A.A. states that the establishment of electronic payments and other services by the government could reduce the cost of conducting business in Malaysia (2009). Besides that, eliminating paper billing altogether will reduces paper and mailing costs. The amount of savings depends on each businesss daily routines such as receiving incoming cheques and making deposits (Wilson,U. 2009). On the other hand, e-payments services also reduce cost of the consumers. With the appearance of this service, consumers can cut down transportation costs for trips to the bank. Electronic payment services have the reminders and notifications function for customers to pay their bill. A business can set up weekly or monthly reminders to their customers and clients to remind them when a bill is due. By this function that provide by e-payment service can reducing the amount of late payments that the company receive. Online payments also allow for quicker transactions, eliminating the waiting period required for a mailed check to arrive. If an organization dispersed its companies in different location, then the banking relationship will be complicated. Geographically dispersed companies often establish a bank account at each location, because this can provide convenience for their daily banking routines (Wilson,U. 2009). But an additional cost will incurred for company to maintain accounts in all its locations. Electronic payment system can removes geographic boundaries. It then eliminates the extra cost of maintaining separate accounts at different locations. Last but not least, electronic payment services are providing a greener business solution. By sending and receiving bills online, customers and businesses alike are reducing the amount of paper tossed and doing their part to help save the environment. Risks and Risk Managements E-payment system is currently continued to develop and expand in the financial market of our country, but there are some risks existing as the e-payment expanding widely. A healthy development of the system will require the cooperation by different role that include central bank, bank and customer to manage the risk and challenges. E-payment system is currently continued to develop and expand in the financial market of our country. A healthy development of the system will require the cooperation by different role that include central bank, bank and customer to manage the risk and challenges. Basir, A.A. (2009) studied how Central bank promote the development of e-payment schemes. After adopted liberalization policy, the central bank required migration to the Europay-MasterCard-Visa standard for credit cards as a crucial step to reduce fraud. Although this can curb the use of cloned domestic credit cards, however, it is less effective against credit card fraud arising from purchases made over the internet or by telephone (Bank Negara Malaysia 2007). On the other hand, central bank has issued a set of guidelines on managing fraud and risks on credit card operations to all banks. Generally, they are improving the policy and the implementation continuously in order to enhance public confidence towards the payment system. Fraud is also a risk faced by internet banking users. To mitigate it, the central bank issued guidelines that outline the minimum risk management requirements for all forms of electronic banking. In addition, government also established the Internet Banking Task Force, comprising the leading banking institutions, cyber security agency, polices and also Internet service provider company. Specific requirements were also issued to banks, such as the requirement to implement two-factor authentication for internet banking transactions. Recognizing that controls are needed to address risks facing the public from using e-money, the central bank is formulating a regulatory framework for the electronic money business. The central bank also extended its regulatory oversight to cover nonbank remittance operators as remittances that sent abroad by foreign workers in the Malaysia is correspondingly high. As part of its efforts to mitigate systemic risk in the payment system, MEPS conducts a disaster recovery exercise for three of its core service networks: the shared ATM network, e-Debit, payment for goods or services through cashless methods such as credit cards or online purchases, and Interbank GIRO (IBG), a funds transfer payment system operated by MEPS that enables consumers to transfer funds through banks across Malaysia (Bank Negara Malaysia 2007). The live disaster recovery exercise is to serves to familiarize the MEPS disaster recovery team, financial institutions and related service providers with the disaster recovery process. Various measures has been taken by Central Bank to make sure that the system can be maintained in a standard level and can be follow by other banks in our country. Norges Bank Report (2009) show that the new electronic payment services will involve lengthy automated processes between payers and payees. This increases complexity and involves a risk of errors that may delay or prevent completion of payments. At the same time, payment services are expected to be available at all times. Secure and stable IT operations have therefore become a major challenge for participants in the E-payment system. Ensuring rightful access to means of payment and preventing counterfeiting and fraud has always been demanding. New payment solutions pose new challenges, also with regard to security. Payment services are provided via networks. The risk for one participant is influenced by the other participants in the network, but the other participants may have little motivation for taking measures to reduce the risk of events that do not affect them. A participants willingness and capacity to reduce payment fraud thus largely depends on the extent to which the partic ipant bears the costs involved. When the participant best able to reduce fraud must also cover the cost of the fraud, the willingness to invest in measures to mitigate the risk is probably strengthened. This is taken into consideration when deciding customers liability for compensation in connection with card fraud. The less a loss can be blamed on the customer, the larger the share of the loss that must be covered by the bank. With better information concerning the extent of fraud and how it occurs, appropriate measures to reduce fraud are more likely to be implemented. Financial Supervisory Authority in some country has tightened reporting requirements for financial institutions concerning incidents that occur in the payment system (Norway- Finanstilsynet). Pin code and the contents of the cards magnetic stripe are easily stolen from point-of-sale terminals, and the information would then be used for fraudulent withdrawal or goods purchases. To overcome this issue, we can see that chip card and chip-enabled terminals has been used globally in a tremendously speed because its posses a stronger security and functions. When such events are detected, the issuing banks block the cards concerned, contact the customer and issue a new payment card. There has been a significant increase in card data theft in many countries. Losses have been low, but inconvenience to the customers and banks concerned has been substantial. Operating incidents can also give rise to problems and losses. For example, shops and other merchants will make fewer sales if customers do not have access to major payment services. For example that was happened in Norway, on Saturday 24 October 2009, the BankAxept system was inoperative for 13 minutes. This affected all mercha nts and all cards using BankAxept during a very busy period of trading. Inadequate control of account balances has also given rise to problems in connection with card use in point-of-sale terminals and ATMs. Such events generally only affect certain types of cards, certain ATMs or certain merchants. Online banking payment services are work under complex operating environments. Most of the time, it will share IT resources with other services. Any disruption that caused to the services will directly affect the procedures of payment. Access to online banking requires users to identify themselves and be authenticated before being able to make payments or carry out other operations. To guarantee a more secure and smooth transaction, banks have to spend investment in technology by providing a stable and reliable service in websites that available currently. One of the ways includes technical improvement, which is requiring customers to re-authenticate their identity for each payment. A number of new payment methods with different channels have been introduced in recent years. One example is payment via mobile telephones. Based on this concept, customer authentication can also be made more secure by combining use of mobile telephones and online banking. If an identity code is sent via the mobile telephone network, a fraudster must obtain access to data sent both via the mobile telephone network and the Internet. However, this system will become more complex when payment services are provided via a number of channels. Setting up agreements between bank and customer is challenging as different suppliers are responsible for providing different services to the same mobile telephone. From the report, it was suggested that combination of new payment method is only applicable by achieve agreements from bank, customer and the supplier. We know that payment services are dependent on uninterrupted availability of IT systems, telecommunications and power supply. Cash and various paper-based system will become basic point if the backup solutions fail when disruption occur. In that time, banks must able to handle a sufficient number of paper-based forms for payment purposes in a crisis. If cash is used as a backup solution, each participant must include capacity and procedures for increased supply of cash and cash handling in its contingency plans. Banks are obliged to allow customers to withdraw their deposits when they so request or when time deposits fall due. This obligation applies both in normal situations and in crises. Thus, a considerable plan should be build on the basis that an increased supply of cash should be able to cover a large share of purchases normally paid for by card. Besides, Central Bank must also have the capacity and availability to meet an increased demand for cash from banks. 5.0 Conclusion In conclusion, e-payment systems have provided various types of benefits to consumers and businesses. Although there are some risks by using the e-payments systems, but the risks are controls by the risk management strategies. Thus, the usage trends of e-payment systems are increasing among the consumers because it is a convenient and secure payment system to use by consumers.